<![CDATA[
<body>
<h1>Spirulina Research </h1>
<h2>There have been over 200 scientific studies on Spirulina </h2>
<p>These include in-vitro experiments, in-vivo animal research and double blind, placebo-controlled human clinical trials that have showed a vast array of positive health benefits from Spirulina.In the interest of brevity we will examine just a fraction of these studies here. </p>
<p>An excellent summary study of Spirulina was done in 2002. The authors summarized the many potential benefits of Spirulina: “Spirulina has been experimentally proven, in vivo and in vitro that it is effective to treat certain allergies, anemia, cancer, hepatotoxicity [toxicity of the liver], viral and cardiovascular diseases, hyperglycemia [high blood sugar], hyperlipidemia [high cholesterol and triglycerides], immunodeficiency, and inflammatory processes, among others. Several of these activities are attributed to Spirulina itself or to some of its components including fatty acids omega-3 or omega-6, beta-carotene, alpha-tocopherol, phycocyanin, phenol compounds and a recently isolated complex, Calcium Spirulan.” (Chamorro et al, 2002) </p>
<p>Another summary study in 2001 analyzed some of the benefits mentioned above as well as some additional potential benefits. The authors pointed out that Spirulina was proven to stimulate the immune system and augment resistance in humans as well as animals (including mammals, poultry and fish) by stimulating the production of antibodies and cytokines. It went on to point out that “Spirulina sulfolipids have proved to be effective against HIV. Preparations obtained from Spirulina biomass have also been found active against herpes virus, cytomegalovirus, influenza virus, etc. Spirulina extracts are capable in inhibiting carcinogenesis [production of cancer].” The study went on to point out that Spirulina is also effective in preserving intestinal flora and in decreasing Candida albicans (yeast infections). (Blinkova et al, 2001)</p>
<p>The reference above to Spirulina’s effectiveness with HIV is very interesting, and a very recent study done at the University of South Carolina focused on this topic. This study is titled “Algae—a poor man’s HAART” (HIV/AIDS anti-retroviral therapy). This study examines the in vivo and in vitro HIV inhibition by algae, and goes on to point out that the people of Chad including the Kanembu tribe who eat Spirulina daily have a much lower incidence of HIV/AIDS than Africans in surrounding countries, which cannot be explained by differences in sexual behavior or intravenous drug use. The study hypothesizes that “regular consumption of dietary algae might help prevent HIV infection and suppress viral load among those infected.” (Teas et al, 2004)</p>
<p>Previously, scientists at the prestigious Harvard Medical School in Boston found that a water extract of Spirulina prevented the replication of HIV-1 virus in human T-cell lines. The viral production was reduced by approximately 50%. The researchers separated the extract into a polysaccharide fraction and a fraction depleted of polysaccharides and found antiviral activity in both. They concluded that the water extracts of Spirulina “contain antiretroviral activity that may be of potential clinical interest” (Ayehunie et al, 1998). </p>
<p>A very important clinical trial was done on tobacco chewers that had pre-cancerous lesions in their mouths. The group taking Spirulina (at a remarkably low dose of only one gram per day) had complete regression of the lesions in 20 of 44 cases (45%). In the placebo group, only 3 of 43 (7%) showed regression. Within one year of discontinuing Spirulina consumption 9 out of 20 (45%) of the subjects that had complete regression developed new lesions! (Mathew et al, 1995)</p>
<p>In a study done in Europe that examined the effect that Spirulina has on patients with multiple sclerosis, the researchers said “It has been established that intake of Spirulina makes for lengthening of remission in those patients with disseminated sclerosis (Buletsa et al, 1996).</p>
<p><strong>Spirulina </strong>has been shown to help the liver and to help people already suffering from liver disease. A study was done on 60 patients with chronic diffuse disorders of the liver as well as 70 animals with toxic affection of the liver. They found that Spirulina was effective for both the people and the animals. They attributed the hepatoprotective (liver-protecting) properties of Spirulina to its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, membrane-stabilizing and immunocorrecting actions. They found that Spirulina stabilized the liver disease and prevented the disease from progressing to cirrhosis (Gorban et al, 2000). </p>
<p>A recent study done at the University of California Davis’s School of Medicine had allergy researchers examine Spirulina’s effect on allergic rhinitis (allergies that cause inflammation of the mucous membrane of the nose). The study proved that by using Spirulina patients reduced the cytokine Interleukin-4 and the researchers concluded that Spirulina demonstrates protective effects on sufferers of allergic rhinitis (Mao et al, 2005). </p>
<p>Countless animal studies have shown positive benefits from Spirulina consumption. A study done on rats showed excellent prospects for Spirulina as a neuroprotective supplement. The study proved that Spirulina reduced ischemic brain damage in rats, and that these rats had improved post-stroke locomotor activity (Wang et al, 2005). The same researchers had previously demonstrated that Spirulina reduces degeneration of the brain of aged animals. Another group which measured oxidative damage found similar results in aged rats’ brains. Spirulina decreased the oxidation in the brain and also decreased pro-inflammatory cytokines (Gemma et al, 2002). </p>
<p>A study of cats found that Spirulina may improve disease resistance (Qureshi and Ali, 1996). Spirulina was also found to increase several different immunological functions in chickens (Qureshi et al, 1996). A study in mice in Japan found similar results: Spirulina enhanced immune response through multiple pathways (Hayashi et al, 1994). Another mouse study showed that Spirulina reduced both skin and stomach tumors significantly. Spirulina was shown to reduce both the size of the tumors and to reduce the incidence of tumors (Dasgupta et al, 2001). </p>
<p>Diabetic mice showed very positive results when given Spirulina in one study which led the researchers to conclude that “It is worth future work of Spirulina on humans looking for better quality of life and longer survival of diabetic patients (Rodriguez et al, 2001). Rats with high blood lipid levels showed improvement when fed Spirulina (Iwata et al, 1990). Spirulina also was shown to dose-dependently reduce allergic reactions in rats (Kim et al, 1998). </p>
<p>Other animal studies have shown very diverse results. Spirulina was shown to prevent fatty liver development in rats (Torres et al, 1998). Spirulina was also shown to significantly increase iron storage and hemoglobin blood counts in pregnant and lactating rats (Kapoor and Mehta, 1998). The same researchers found earlier that Spirulina-fed rats showed faster growth rates than rats fed a standard diet without Spirulina. They also showed that Spirulina increased the litter size of pregnant rats and concluded that “Spirulina appears to be a good dietary supplement during pregnancy” (Kapoor and Mehta, 1993). </p>
<p>In earlier human research, Spirulina has been observed to assist in the treatment of wounds (Clement et al 1967) and to lower cholesterol (Nayaka et al 1988). Groups of undernourished children and adults have responded well to being fed Spirulina (Sautier and Tremolieres 1976).</p>
<p></p>
<p><strong>Carotenoids </strong></p>
<p> </p>
<p>The National Research Council and other research organizations recommend that we eat at least 5 – 9 servings of fruits and vegetables each day, especially green and yellow vegetables and citrus fruits, because of the link between eating them and decreased susceptibility to some cancers (National Research Council 1989). There is strong evidence that it is the carotenoids and antioxidants in these foods that offer protection against cancer. Unfortunately, most of us do not eat the recommended 5 – 9 servings. This is where the great advantage of Spirulina lies: it is a carotenoid rich food—the richest—and it can be taken in tablet or powder form to supplement our diets.</p>
<p>Spirulina and its individual nutrients are receiving a lot of attention from the scientific community. Carotenoids are rapidly becoming known as the superstars of nutrition as more people realize that antioxidants play a vital role in human health. “The consumption of a diet rich in carotenoids has been epidemiologically correlated with a lower risk for several diseases.” (Stahl and Sies, 2005) Scientists in Australia recently found that prostate cancer risk declined with increasing consumption of carotenoids including lycopene, lutein, alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, beta-cryptoxanthin and zeaxanthin (the latter three out of the six listed are present in Spirulina). They concluded that diets containing carotenoid-rich fruits and vegetables may be protective against prostate cancer. (Jian et al, 2005) Many earlier studies have found similar relationships between carotenoid intake and other forms of cancer. </p>
<p> </p>
<p> </p>
<p><strong><h2>Beta-Carotene</h2></strong></p>
<p> </p>
<p>Some astonishing work with carotenoids is showing that they may be much more than free radical absorbers. Leading edge researchers have discovered that some carotenoids actually affect the way our cells communicate. For example, cancerous cell lines are typically unable to receive growth-controlling chemical signals from other cells. Beta-carotene opens the membrane communication channels of cancerous and pre-cancerous cells, allowing the body to signal the cancerous line to stop dividing. Thus, foods rich in carotenoids, in this case beta-carotene, may not only be able to prevent but also reverse cancers (Wolf 1992).</p>
<p>Another study showed that beta-carotene reduces the size of tumors that were already present in hamsters and slowed new tumor growth, extending the hamsters' survival time (Schwartz et al 1988).</p>
<p>Beta-carotene also has all the benefits of vitamin A. Our bodies make vitamin A out of beta-carotene, but with beta-carotene there is no risk of vitamin A toxicity because the body will only convert as much beta-carotene to vitamin A as it needs. Whereas prolonged use of large amounts of vitamin A can cause skin rashes, hair loss, headaches, and irreversible liver damage, no toxicity or side effects have been found even with very large doses of beta-carotene. Excess beta-carotene circulates in the blood and is stored in fat tissue: an orange tint to the skin, especially in the palms of the hands, indicates reserves of beta-carotene.</p>
<p>Natural beta-carotene is chemically and physically different from the synthetic form. And although there is evidence that the body absorbs natural beta-carotene ten times more easily than it absorbs the synthetic form (Ben-Amotz et al 1989), most controlled studies with beta-carotene use the synthetic form. However, since the studies are showing that synthetic beta-carotene appears to be helping to protect against cancer and heart disease, it would indeed be interesting to see the results of studies involving natural beta-carotene. One such study noted significant differences between the use of synthetic and dietary beta-carotene (Brevard 1989).</p>
<p>Numerous studies have shown that people whose diets are high in beta-carotene have a lower incidence of various cancers (Ziegler 1989). Smokers, who are especially vulnerable, should maintain their beta-carotene levels. Low beta-carotene levels in the blood of smokers have been connected with the later appearance of lung cancer (Stahelin et al 1991). Researchers at Albert Einstein College of Medicine have shown that beta-carotene exerts a protective effect against the development and progression of cervical cancer (Palan et al 1992). Beta-carotene may also help to protect the skin against the damaging effects of sunlight and help to prevent skin cancers (Kornhauser et al 1986).</p>
<p>In the early 1980’s a landmark study by the US National Science Foundation entitled Diet, Nutrition and Cancer, concluded on the basis of epidemiological evidence that diets rich in beta carotene were correlated with a reduction in the incidence of cancer. In fact, over 200 studies of dietary consumption of beta-carotene indicated a reduction of a range of cancers. Subsequent to those results scientists began a very large clinical trial of heavy smokers (two packs or more per day) in Finland to determine if supplementation with synthetic beta carotene would reduce the incidence of cancer. (Remember, synthetic beta carotene is different than that found in Spirulina in that it contains only the all-trans (no bends) version of the molecule while natural sources like Spirulina provide several cis-forms (molecules that have bends in them) as well as the all-trans form.</p>
<p>The results of the trial were surprising in that contrary to the hypothesis, the beta-carotene supplemented group had a small (statistically insignificant) increase in the incidence of lung cancer. Interestingly, the group in the study with the highest blood levels of beta carotene from dietary sources had the lowest</p>
<h2>Spirulina and the incidence of lung cancer.</h2>
<p>Scientists theorized that these results came from the fact that beta-carotene works in combination with vitamin C to reduce the energy of free radicals. In the absence of vitamin C, beta-carDSpotene can actually form a pro-oxidant, leading to accelerated tissue cellular damage. Because of the high intake of free radicals in the lungs by smokers, they become deficient in vitamin C and this is thought to be the reason supplementing heavy smokers with beta-carotene can cause a slight increase in cancer risk. (Note: There are very few antioxidants that never become pro-oxidants. The only two well researched carotenoid antioxidants that never become pro-oxidants are astaxanthin and zeaxanthin. So if you smoke, be sure to take Spirulina for its natural beta-carotene and zeaxanthin carotenoid antioxidants, take a natural astaxanthin supplement and take some Vitamin C as well.) </p>
<p>One of the largest studies to determine the relationship between beta-carotene and cancers is the ten-year study at Harvard Medical School involving 22,000 physicians. An interim report concentrated on 333 of the doctors who were showing signs of coronary artery disease when the study began. Those who were taking the beta-carotene supplements suffered about half as many heart attacks, strokes, heart surgeries, and other major cardiovascular events as those taking a placebo. Although the study was intended to look at beta-carotene and cancer, results are showing that beta-carotene also plays a role in preventing heart disease. It appears to discourage the formation and oxidation of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, thus lessening the damage to arteries that results in atherosclerosis (Johns Hopkins University 1991). In a smaller study involving people who chew tobacco, results have shown that taking beta-carotene supplements reduces oral precancerous lesions (Stich et al 1991).</p>
<p>As we grow older, immunological functions decrease, and the body's repair system begins to fail, making us more susceptible to diseases and other health problems. Antioxidants, in particular carotenoids, help to prevent the free radical damage associated with the aging process itself.</p>
<p>There is strong evidence that beta-carotene also enhances many aspects of immune function (Bendich 1988). It stimulates immunocompetence in healthy individuals and enhances immune function in people who have tested HIV positive (Garewal et al 1992). The cells of the immune system are among the most sensitive to oxidation.</p>
<p>In other research, the severity of measles in children has been reduced with vitamin A supplementation; and children who suffered higher fevers and were hospitalized with measles were found to have low vitamin A levels (Frieden et al 1992). Measles is one of the severest infectious diseases in poor communities; and vitamin A given to children with complicated measles was seen to enhance immune-competence and decrease morbidity and mortality (Coutsoudis et al 1992).</p>
<p>Lastly, large doses of beta-carotene were given to people with a disorder called erythropoietic protoporphyria (EPP), which is a hypersensitivity to visible light. In several studies over three-quarters of the patients experienced significant improvement in their ability to tolerate exposure to light; and over three-quarters of those could now spend four times longer out in the sun (Mathews-Roth 1981). This was especially important to children who could now play outdoors. There is evidence that carotenoids also help protect against other forms of photosensitivity (Kornhauser et al 1986).</p>
<p> </p>
<p> </p>
<h2>Zeaxanthin</h2>
<p> </p>
<p>The second most prevalent carotenoid in Spirulina is zeaxanthin. In fact, there is more zeaxanthin in just 3 grams of Hawaiian Spirulina than there is in a large bowl of spinach, one of nature’s richest sources. Zeaxanthin is a very important antioxidant for two reasons: 1) It is one of the few antioxidants that can cross the blood brain barrier and bring antioxidant protection to the eyes, brain and central nervous system and 2) it is also one of the few antioxidants that never becomes a pro-oxidant. It’s true that many wonderful antioxidants can become pro-oxidants (cause oxidation in the body) in the absence of sufficient supporting antioxidants. Zeaxanthin and astaxanthin are two carotenoids that never become pro-oxidants in any situation. These two facts about zeaxanthin are leading researchers to study zeaxanthin more and more, and as they do, they’re finding out that it is a powerful antioxidant with many benefits. In the chart below, zeaxanthin beat out all other antioxidants tested except for astaxanthin in singlet oxygen quenching rates. It beat Vitamin E by over 400 times! (Please note that there are many different ways to measure antioxidant strength, and this is just one test.)</p>
<p> </p>
<p> </p>
<p> </p>
<p> </p>
<p>An article in the June 2005 issue of the Alternative Medicine Review summarized some of the benefits of zeaxanthin and its closely related xanthophyll carotenoid lutein: “Lutein and zeaxanthin are the only carotenoids found in both the macula and lens of the human eye, and have dual functions in both tissues – to act as powerful antioxidants and to filter high-energy blue light…In addition to playing pivotal roles in ocular health, lutein and zeaxanthin are important nutrients for the prevention of cardiovascular disease, stroke and lung cancer. They may also be protective in skin conditions attributed to excessive ultraviolet (UV) light exposure.”</p>
<p>Researchers at the Antioxidants Research Laboratory, a subsidiary of the United States Department of Agriculture’s Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging, added to the above, citing zeaxanthin’s potential role in the prevention of cardiovascular disease: “Epidemiological studies indicating an inverse relationship between xanthophylls [zeaxanthin is a xanthophyll] intake or status and both cataract and age-related macular degeneration suggest these compounds can play a protective role in the eye. Some observational studies have also shown these xanthophylls may help reduce the risk of certain types of cancer, particularly those of the breast and lung. Emerging studies suggest as well a potential contribution of lutein and zeaxanthin to the prevention of heart disease and stroke.” (Ribaya-Mercado and Blumberg, 2004)</p>
<p>A study done in the Netherlands examined the role that zeaxanthin and beta-carotene had on inflammation-caused atherosclerosis. They found that the inverse relationship between these carotenoids and leukocytes may explain the possible protective effect of carotenoids on atherosclerosis through their work as anti-inflammatories (van Herpen-Broekmans et al, 2004). </p>
<p> </p>
<p> </p>
<p><strong>Phycocyanin</strong></p>
<p> </p>
<p>Phycocyanin is being studied more and more by scientists in recent years.</p>
<p>The word “phycocyanin” comes from the Greek word for algae “phyco” and the Greek word for blue “cyan.” Phycocyanin is an amazing water-soluble blue pigment that gives Spirulina its bluish tint. Phycocyanin is only found in blue-green algae like Spirulina—you can’t get it in other foods. Phycocyanin is one of the key ingredients that make Spirulina such a wonderful Superfood, and a vital difference between Spirulina and other green foods like chlorella, wheat grass and barley. </p>
<p>Phycocyanin is a powerful water soluble antioxidant. Scientists in Spain showed that an extract of Spirulina containing phycocyanin is a potent free radical scavenger and inhibits microsomal lipid peroxidation (Pinero et al, 2001). Spirulina has many different types of antioxidants, and the unique nature of phycocyanin makes Spirulina a level above other antioxidant foods or formulas. It is the phycocyanin in Spirulina that is thought to help protect against renal failure caused by certain drug therapies administered in hospitals. Phycocyanin has also shown promise in treating cancer in animals and stimulating the immune system (Iijima et al 1982). A recent study showed that phycocyanin is a powerful anti-inflammatory (Reddy et al 2000). It has also been shown to inhibit the allergic inflammatory response (Ramirez et al 2002). Phycocyanin combats inflammation as a Cox-2 inhibitor. Prescription Cox-2 inhibitors can damage the liver, but phycocyanin actually helps the liver. </p>
<p>A great deal of research has been done in Japan on phycocyanin. The Japanese have found that phycocyanin protects the liver and the kidneys during detoxification, as well as activating the immune system. Researchers at the Osaka Medical Center for Cancer and Cardiovascular Diseases said “Spirulina is surmised to potentiate the immune system leading to suppression of cancer development and viral infection.” Their human clinical study showed that a hot water extract of Spirulina rich in phycocyanin increased interferon production and NK cytotoxicity (cancer killing cells) when taken orally (Hirahashi et al, 2002).</p>
<p>Cuban scientists have also been looking at the many properties of phycocyanin. Animal studies done with rodents showed that phycocyanin has anti-inflammatory activity due to prostaglandin E-2 inhibition (Romay et al, 2000) and that it reduces allergic inflammatory response and histamine release from cells (Remirez et al, 2002). Another study indicated that Spirulina had an anti-arthritic effect in mice, which they said may be due to the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of phycocyanin (Remirez et al, 2002) </p>
<p>Another study in Cuba concluded that phycocyanin has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective (brain) and hepatoprotective (liver) effects (Romay et al 2003). Their work was done both in-vitro and in-vivo. In twelve experimental modules of inflammation, phycocyanin exerted a dose-dependant anti-inflammatory effect in every case. These scientists also found that phycocyanin reduced levels of tumor necrosis factor in mice and showed neuroprotective effects in rats. </p>
<p>An interesting study was done in Ukraine (where Spirulina had previously shown effectiveness in removing radioactivity from the urine of children suffering from high levels of radiation from the Chernobyl nuclear accident). This study was done with rats that were exposed to x-rays. The study found that rats fed phycocyanin experienced a correcting effect of the radiation exposure (Karpov et al, 2000). </p>
<p>Similar to studies done on Spirulina in its entirety, water extracts of Spirulina that are rich in phycocyanin have shown excellent antiviral properties. In one such experiment done at the National School of Biological Sciences in Mexico City the phycocyanin-rich extract inhibited the infection for herpes simplex virus 1 and 2, pseudo-rabies virus and human cytomegalovirus (Hernandez-Corona et al, 2002). In another study, a Spirulina water extract was compared with a chlorella water extract. Since chlorella has no phycocyanin, it performed much worse than Spirulina in relation to liver disease cells. The extracts of these two algae both showed positive effects, but Spirulina had a stronger effect than chlorella. The researcher pointed out, “the growth inhibitory effects of aqueous Spirulina extract on human liver cancer cells was five times that of chlorella.” (Wu et al, 2005). </p>
<p>Earlier work at the University of California, Irvine showed that phycocyanin exhibited a positive effect in removing plaque from the arteries (Morcos et al, 1988). The authors stated that the properties that phycocyanin exhibited in their study “suggest potential therapeutic use for plaque localization and regression.”</p>
</body>
]]>